Competency K

Design training programs based on appropriate learning principles and theories

Libraries frequently have to deal with training programs. Staff need to be trained on new software and new procedures, and in addition, libraries often offer computer classes, such as learning the basics of email, internet searching, or word processing. Training strategies differ according to the material being offered, and training programs aimed at different levels of competency require different approaches, as no single set of conditions will work for all types of learning. There are, however, certain principles of learning that can be applied or adapted to most types of training.

Theories on instruction and learning have evolved over the years, often going in and out of fashion. The influence of several theories can be seen in most instructional situations today, among them Behaviorism, Programmed Instruction, Constructivism, and Pragmatism (Kallio, 2008).

One of the earliest theories of learning is Behaviorism, which holds that all behavior is caused by responses to the environment. The idea behind Behaviorism is simple: behaviors which get a favorable response are repeated, while behaviors which get an unfavorable response are not. This is incorporated into instruction as a system of rewards and punishments, where the desired behavior gets rewarded, often with praise or a passing grade, and undesired behavior gets punished, such as with a failing grade. Behaviorism illustrates the importance of feedback in instruction. However, it is simplistic and does not take individual temperaments into account.

The theory of Programmed Instruction uses the Behaviorist approach of offering positive reinforcement, with the addition of breaking the material down into small, precisely defined increments. This has the advantage of making the material manageable, and letting the learner master each piece before moving on to the next. However, it creates a rigid structure that does not account for different learning styles.

Constructivism holds that knowledge is constructed within the individual though experience, aided but not directly caused by external factors. This theory asserts that learning is a personal experience, and the learning process will be different for different learners. The instructor acts as a guide and facilitator through the learning process. This theory is useful with less formal structures and casual settings, where learners can proceed at their own pace and in their own way.

Pragmatism came from the belief that education should be more than drills and rote learning. Instead, education should require the learner to use critical thinking skills. The theory promotes the concept of learning by doing, on the belief that instruction alone would not be able to cement the knowledge or skill deep enough. The practice of hands-on learning comes from Pragmatism. While not practical in every situation, Pragmatism combined with other learning theories can be a very strong tool for instruction.

These theories each have their strengths and weaknesses, and there is no one theory that can be applied well to every situation. Elements of the theories can be combined into frameworks that can be modified to fit most instructional situations.

One school of thought breaks effective instruction down into nine steps, or "events" (Gagné, cited in Kretchmar, 2008). These are based upon the belief that external events cannot produce learning, but only support the learner's internal processing. Further, learning is not an isolated event, but rather builds upon knowledge and abilities the learner already has.

The first step is to gain the attention of the learner. A person has to be engaged and receptive for learning to take place. One of the best ways to do this is to make the material matter to the learner. When the learner cares about the material, they're much more likely to be invested in the learning. Illustrating practical uses for the material can make it more immediate and real, which can make them more engaged in the learning.

The next step is to inform the learner of the objective. Knowing the expected outcome can help the learner anticipate the information, and help them stay on track. Telling them the reason for an exercise or activity can help them to process the relevant information and ignore the extraneous information, which can help keep them focused and engaged. The instructor doesn't need to go into detail at this point, but should give the learner an idea of what to expect.

The next step is to stimulate the recall of prior learning. Learning builds complex skills on top of simpler ones, which means recalling skills that were previously learned will help in learning new skills. Reviewing what was learned previously also helps to keep the skills fresh in the learner's mind, so that the previous skills are not forgotten when the training moves on to other tasks. A simple review or reminder is usually enough.

The next step is to present the learning stimulus. The learning should be broken down into small segments in order to make it more manageable. Presenting the information all at once can make it overwhelming and unwieldy. Small segments with positive feedback at the completion of each one can act like a stepladder that helps the learner reach the main objective.

The next step is to provide the learner with guidance. Guidance helps facilitate the development of skills through demonstration and coaching. The learner can see how the skill is performed, and how it relates to previous skills. The instructor can also walk the learner through the skill to give them a feel for the task.

The next step is to have the learner perform the task. Since learning is an internal process, it must be inferred from behavior. Performing the task enables both the learner and the instructor to confirm the learning. It also gives the instructor a chance to provide additional feedback and offer corrections, if necessary.

Providing feedback and assessing the performance are the next two steps. Positive feedback creates a sense of accomplishment, which reinforces learning. Correcting mistakes early can prevent them from becoming habits, and helps to build a strong foundation for further learning.

The last step is enhancing retention and the transfer of skills and knowledge. Once a skill is learned, the learner should be able to apply it in relevant situations outside of the learning scenario. This has the dual effect of reinforcing the skill and verifying the learning. Often this step is not part of the training provided by the instructor, but rather is performed by the learner on their own.

This structure of learning can provide a good framework, but instructors need to be flexible. People learn in different ways. For example, some people learn well from written instructions, while others may need visual or auditory instruction, and still others learn best by doing. A training program designed to be given to a large number of people should take multiple learning styles into account. This could be done by using slides or some other visual media, while giving learners opportunities for hands-on experience, and also providing a hand-out.

In summary, a good training program should present the material in a way that makes it relevant and important to the learner, and the learning objective should be clear from the onset. The material should be broken down into small, manageable chunks, with guidance and feedback offered frequently. Different learning styles should be taken into account whenever possible, by offering the material in different forms.

Instructors also need to keep in mind that a rigid structure might not work well with all subjects or for all audiences. Higher level material and more skilled learners might do better in an environment that allows for more freedom. Instruction that allows learners to choose different paths to come to the same outcome might work better for more advanced audiences.

The evidence I'm submitting is a review of an article on using interactive story authoring in the classroom. The study used a script writing tool, called ScriptEase, along with a tool that built computer role-playing scenarios. The study compared the scenarios, or interactive stories, created by groups of tenth-grade students with traditional stories the students had written. The study found that most students performed at least as well in creating the interactive stories as they did in writing the traditional stories. There was no significant improvement in the interactive stories over the traditional ones, but the results showed that most of the students were using the same elements of story telling, such as character development, setting, plot, and theme. This suggests that computer-based interactive story creation could be a viable alternative or supplement to traditional teaching methods.

Computer-based instruction such as this has a lot of potential to reach students who would be bored by or uninterested in traditional methods. The visual format and familiar product can engage a student in ways that words on paper cannot. While the objective for the instructor may be to teach the student elements of story telling, the objective for the student is to create a role-playing game. This is a concrete objective that the student can care about. The story authoring tools build on prior skills such as creative thinking and decision making. The process is automatically broken down into manageable sections, as students deal with item, character, or setting one by one, and students can immediately see the results of their actions.

Using games and game-building as learning tools has potential for many areas of instruction. People often learn best when they don't realize they're learning. It can potentially be adapted to different age groups and different backgrounds, and can be offered virtually as well as in the classroom.

References:

Kallio, K. (2008). Instructional design. Research Starters. Retrieved April 6th, 2009, from http://search.ebscohost.com.libaccess.sjlibrary.org/login.aspx?direct=true&db=e0h&AN=31962622&loginpage=login.asp&site=ehost-live

Kretchmar, J. (2008). Gagné's conditions of learning. Research Starters. Retrieved April 6th, 2009, from http://search.ebscohost.com.libaccess.sjlibrary.org/login.aspx?direct=true&db=e0h&AN=29964447&loginpage=login.asp&site=ehost-live